| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | COVER ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
||||||||
|
||||||||||
CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, Vol 41, Issue 3 146-165, Copyright © 1991 by American Cancer Society
J. L. Kelsey and M. D. Gammon
Table 5 presents risk factors for breast cancer generally regarded as
established, together with their approximate relative risks. With the
exception of age, country of birth, and a history of breast cancer in both
a mother and a sister, all of the relative risks reported to date are of a
relatively modest magnitude. Thus, new risk factors need to be identified
and knowledge of existing risk factors refined. Factors for which the
evidence of an etiologic role has mounted over the past several years, but
which are not yet considered to be established, include the protective
effects of parity and lactation in certain age groups and the increased
risks associated with alcohol consumption and with DES exposure during
pregnancy. In addition, physical activity has emerged as a factor worthy of
further study. Some evidence suggests that use of oral contraceptives for
several years at an early age modestly increases the risk for breast cancer
diagnosed before age 35 and perhaps age 45. Use of estrogen-replacement
therapy for 20 years or more has been found by a few studies to increase
the risk for breast cancer in the postmenopausal years; further studies of
very long-term users are needed. Also, other risks and benefits of these
hormones need to be taken into account when women decide whether to use
them. Surprisingly elusive has been the etiologic role of endogenous
hormones, especially in view of the large number of studies that have been
concerned with them. A better understanding of the role of endogenous
hormones should help explain the mechanisms of action of known and
suspected risk factors. Areas of high priority for further research thus
include establishing with more certainty whether the risk for breast cancer
is increased in any subgroups of women who use oral contraceptives and
estrogen-replacement therapy and determining the etiologic roles of
specific endogenous hormones. The possible risks associated with alcohol
consumption and lack of physical activity need to be studied more
thoroughly, and ideas about new potential risk factors are needed. Although
epidemiologic studies will continue to be concerned with diet, enthusiasm
for its etiologic role in women has been considerably dampened by the lack
of association in many of the studies reported to date. The studies in
women exposed to radiation, DES, and oral contraceptives suggest that the
timing of some exposures may be critical, since the effects of these agents
may mostly be limited to specific time periods of rapid breast
development.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
ARTICLES
The epidemiology of breast cancer
Division of Epidemiology, Columbia University School of Public Health, New York, New York.
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  Y. Wang, Z. Hu, J. Liang, Z. Wang, J. Tang, S. Wang, X. Wang, J. Qin, X. Wang, and H. Shen A tandem repeat of human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) and risk of breast cancer development and metastasis in Chinese women Carcinogenesis, June 1, 2008; 29(6): 1197 - 1201. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. E. Wilkinson and M. C. Cerreto Primary Care for Women with Intellectual Disabilities J Am Board Fam Med, May 1, 2008; 21(3): 215 - 222. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. R. Loehberg, T. Thompson, M. B. Kastan, K. H. Maclean, D. G. Edwards, F. S. Kittrell, D. Medina, O. M. Conneely, and B. W. O'Malley Ataxia Telangiectasia-Mutated and p53 Are Potential Mediators of Chloroquine-Induced Resistance to Mammary Carcinogenesis Cancer Res., December 15, 2007; 67(24): 12026 - 12033. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. A. Largent, M. Capanu, L. Bernstein, B. Langholz, L. Mellemkjaer, K. E. Malone, C. B. Begg, R. W. Haile, C. F. Lynch, H. Anton-Culver, et al. Reproductive History and Risk of Second Primary Breast Cancer: The WECARE Study Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., May 1, 2007; 16(5): 906 - 911. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. Zhang, T. Sun, L. Xue, X. Han, B. Zhang, N. Lu, Y. Shi, W. Tan, Y. Zhou, D. Zhao, et al. Functional polymorphisms in FAS and FASL contribute to increased apoptosis of tumor infiltration lymphocytes and risk of breast cancer Carcinogenesis, May 1, 2007; 28(5): 1067 - 1073. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. B. Gupta, D. Proia, O. Cingoz, J. Weremowicz, S. P. Naber, R. A. Weinberg, and C. Kuperwasser Systemic Stromal Effects of Estrogen Promote the Growth of Estrogen Receptor-Negative Cancers Cancer Res., March 1, 2007; 67(5): 2062 - 2071. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. Maskarinec, I. Pagano, G. Lurie, and L. N. Kolonel A longitudinal investigation of mammographic density: the multiethnic cohort. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., April 1, 2006; 15(4): 732 - 739. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Mukhina, D. Liu, K. Guo, M. Raccurt, S. Borges-Bendris, H. C. Mertani, and P. E. Lobie Autocrine Growth Hormone Prevents Lactogenic Differentiation of Mouse Mammary Epithelial Cells Endocrinology, April 1, 2006; 147(4): 1819 - 1829. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. Medina Mammary developmental fate and breast cancer risk Endocr. Relat. Cancer, September 1, 2005; 12(3): 483 - 495. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
V. Meniel, T. Hay, A. Douglas-Jones, O. J. Sansom, and A. R. Clarke Mutations in Apc and p53 Synergize to Promote Mammary Neoplasia Cancer Res., January 15, 2005; 65(2): 410 - 416. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. Medina Breast Cancer: The Protective Effect of Pregnancy Clin. Cancer Res., January 1, 2004; 10(1): 380S - 384S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A. Must, S.M. Phillips, E.N. Naumova, M. Blum, S. Harris, B. Dawson-Hughes, and W. M. Rand Recall of Early Menstrual History and Menarcheal Body Size: After 30 Years, How Well Do Women Remember? Am. J. Epidemiol., April 1, 2002; 155(7): 672 - 679. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 E. B. Claus, M. Stowe, and D. Carter Breast Carcinoma In Situ: Risk Factors and Screening Patterns J Natl Cancer Inst, December 5, 2001; 93(23): 1811 - 1817. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. MEDINA, L. SIVARAMAN, S. G. HILSENBECK, O. CONNEELY, M. GINGER, J. ROSEN, and B. W. O'MALLEY Mechanisms of Hormonal Prevention of Breast Cancer Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., December 1, 2001; 952(1): 23 - 35. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. R. Ginger, M. F. Gonzalez-Rimbau, J. P. Gay, and J. M. Rosen Persistent Changes in Gene Expression Induced by Estrogen and Progesterone in the Rat Mammary Gland Mol. Endocrinol., November 1, 2001; 15(11): 1993 - 2009. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. H. Mills, A. J. Lee, A. F. Parlow, and B. T. Zhu Preferential Growth Stimulation of Mammary Glands over Uterine Endometrium in Female Rats by a Naturally Occurring Estradiol-17{beta}-fatty Acid Ester Cancer Res., August 1, 2001; 61(15): 5764 - 5770. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. Mitrunen, P. Sillanpaa, V. Kataja, M. Eskelinen, V.-M. Kosma, S. Benhamou, M. Uusitupa, and A. Hirvonen Association between manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) gene polymorphism and breast cancer risk Carcinogenesis, May 1, 2001; 22(5): 827 - 829. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Kuperwasser, J. Pinkas, G. D. Hurlbut, S. P. Naber, and D. J. Jerry Cytoplasmic Sequestration and Functional Repression of p53 in the Mammary Epithelium Is Reversed by Hormonal Treatment Cancer Res., May 1, 2000; 60(10): 2723 - 2729. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. Medina and G. H. Smith Chemical Carcinogen-Induced Tumorigenesis in Parous, Involuted Mouse Mammary Glands J Natl Cancer Inst, June 2, 1999; 91(11): 967 - 969. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. Wu, K. J. Helzlsouer, G. W. Comstock, S. C. Hoffman, M. R. Nadeau, and J. Selhub A Prospective Study on Folate, B12, and Pyridoxal 5'-Phosphate (B6) and Breast Cancer Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., March 1, 1999; 8(3): 209 - 217. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. Fuh and J. A. Wells Prolactin Receptor Antagonists That Inhibit the Growth of Breast Cancer Cell Lines J. Biol. Chem., June 2, 1995; 270(22): 13133 - 13137. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. Sivaraman, O. M. Conneely, D. Medina, and B. W. O'Malley p53 is a potential mediator of pregnancy and hormone-induced resistance to mammary carcinogenesis PNAS, October 23, 2001; 98(22): 12379 - 12384. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | COVER ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
