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CA Cancer J Clin 2007; 57:43-66
doi: 10.3322/canjclin.57.1.43
© 2007 American Cancer Society
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Cancer Statistics, 2007

Ahmedin Jemal, DVM,PhD, Rebecca Siegel, MPH, Elizabeth Ward, PhD, Taylor Murray, Jiaquan Xu and Michael J. Thun, MD,MS

Dr. Jemal is Strategic Director, Cancer Occurrence, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.
Ms. Siegel is Manager, Surveillance Information Services, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.
Dr. Ward is Managing Director, Surveillance Research, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.
Mr. Murray is Manager, Surveillance Data Systems, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.
Mr. Xu is Analyst, Mortality Statistics Branch, Division of Vital Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Hyattsville, MD.
Dr. Thun is Vice President, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.

This article is available online at http://CAonline.AmCancerSoc.org


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 SELECTED FINDINGS
 CANCER OCCURRENCE BY...
 CANCER IN CHILDREN
 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE...
 REFERENCES
 
Each year, the American Cancer Society (ACS) estimates the number of new cancer cases and deaths expected in the United States in the current year and compiles the most recent data on cancer incidence, mortality, and survival based on incidence data from the National Cancer Institute, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the North American Association of Central Cancer Registries and mortality data from the National Center for Health Statistics. This report considers incidence data through 2003 and mortality data through 2004. Incidence and death rates are age-standardized to the 2000 US standard million population. A total of 1,444,920 new cancer cases and 559,650 deaths for cancers are projected to occur in the United States in 2007. Notable trends in cancer incidence and mortality rates include stabilization of the age-standardized, delay-adjusted incidence rates for all cancers combined in men from 1995 through 2003; a continuing increase in the incidence rate by 0.3% per year in women; and a 13.6% total decrease in age-standardized cancer death rates among men and women combined between 1991 and 2004. This report also examines cancer incidence, mortality, and survival by site, sex, race/ethnicity, geographic area, and calendar year, as well as the proportionate contribution of selected sites to the overall trends. While the absolute number of cancer deaths decreased for the second consecutive year in the United States (by more than 3,000 from 2003 to 2004) and much progress has been made in reducing mortality rates and improving survival, cancer still accounts for more deaths than heart disease in persons under age 85 years. Further progress can be accelerated by supporting new discoveries and by applying existing cancer control knowledge across all segments of the population.


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 SELECTED FINDINGS
 CANCER OCCURRENCE BY...
 CANCER IN CHILDREN
 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE...
 REFERENCES
 
Cancer is a major public health problem in the United States and other developed countries. Currently, one in four deaths in the United States is due to cancer. In this article, we provide an overview of cancer statistics, including updated incidence, mortality, and survival rates, and expected number of new cancer cases and deaths in 2007.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
SELECTED FINDINGS
 CANCER OCCURRENCE BY...
 CANCER IN CHILDREN
 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE...
 REFERENCES
 
    Data Sources
Mortality data from 1930 to 2004 in the United States were obtained from the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS).1 Incidence data for long-term trends (1975 to 2003), 5-year relative survival rates, and data on lifetime probability of developing cancer were obtained from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program of the National Cancer Institute, covering about 26% of the US population.2,3,4,5 Incidence data (1995 to 2003) for projecting new cancer cases were obtained from cancer registries that participate in the SEER program or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)'s National Program of Cancer Registries (NPCR), through the North American Associations of Central Cancer Registries (NAACCR). State-specific incidence rates were abstracted from Cancer in North America (1999–2003) Volume One,6 based on data collected by cancer registries participating in the SEER program and NPCR. Population data were obtained from the US Census Bureau.7 Causes of death were coded and classified according to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-8, ICD-9, and ICD-10).8,9,10 Cancer cases were classified according to the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology.11

    Estimated New Cancer Cases
The precise number of cancer cases diagnosed each year in the nation and in every state is unknown because complete cancer registration has not yet been achieved in some states. Since the American Cancer Society (ACS) began producing estimates of new cancer cases in the current year, the method has been refined several times to take advantage of improvements in data and statistical methods. Beginning with 2007, we are using a new projection method described by Pickle et al12 in an accompanying article inthis issue of CA. The new method is a spatio-temporal model based on incidence data from 1995 through 2003 from 41 states that met NAACCR's high-quality data standard for incidence, covering about 86% of the US population. This contrasts with the previous quadratic autoregressive model based on incidence data from the nine oldest SEER registries, covering about 10% of the US population. Furthermore, the new method considers geographic variations in socio-demographic and lifestyle factors, medical settings, and cancer screening behaviors as predictors of incidence, and accounts for expected delays in case reporting.

    Estimated Cancer Deaths
We used the state-space prediction method13 to estimate the number of cancer deaths expected to occur in the United States and in each state in the year 2007. Projections are based on underlying cause-of-death from death certificates as reported to the NCHS.1 This model projects the number of cancer deaths expected to occur in 2007 based on the number that occurred each year from 1969 to 2004 in the United States and in each state separately.

    Other Statistics
We provide mortality statistics for the leading causes of death as well as deaths from cancer in the year 2004. Causes of death for 2004 were coded and classified according to ICD-10.8 This report also provides updated statistics on trends in cancer incidence and mortality rates, the probability of developing cancer, and 5-year relative survival rates for selected cancer sites based on data from 1975 through 2003.3 All age-adjusted incidence and death rates are standardized to the 2000 US standard population and expressed per 100,000 population.

The long-term incidence rates and trends (1975 to 2003) are adjusted for delays in reporting where possible. Delayed reporting affects the most recent 1 to 3 years of incidence data (in this case, 2001 to 2003), especially for cancers such as melanoma and prostate that are frequently diagnosed in outpatient settings. The National Cancer Institute (NCI) has developed a method to account for expected reporting delays in SEER registries for all cancer sites combined and several specific cancer sites when long-term incidence trends are analyzed.14 Delay-adjusted trends provide a more accurate assessment of trends in the most recent years for which data are available.


   SELECTED FINDINGS
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 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 SELECTED FINDINGS
CANCER OCCURRENCE BY...
 CANCER IN CHILDREN
 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE...
 REFERENCES
 
    Expected Numbers of New Cancer Cases
Table 1 presents estimated numbers of new cases of invasive cancer expected among men and women in the United States in 2007. The overall estimate of about 1.44 million new cases does not include carcinoma in situ of any site except urinary bladder, nor does it include basal cell and squamous cell cancers of the skin. More than 1 million additional cases of basal cell and squamous cell skin cancer, about 62,030 cases of breast carcinoma in situ, and 48,290 cases of in situ melanoma are expected to be newly diagnosed in 2007. Because of the introduction of a new projection method, estimates have been affected for many individual cancer sites, particularly for leukemia, female breast, lung, and prostate cancers. The estimated numbers of new cancer cases for each state and selected cancer sites are shown in Table 2.


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  		TABLE 1 Estimated New Cancer Cases and Deaths by Sex, US, 2007*

 

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  		TABLE 2 Age-standardized Incidence Rates for All Cancers Combined, 1999-2003, and Estimated New Cases* for Selected Cancers by State, US, 2007

 
Figure 1 indicates the most common cancers expected to occur in men and women in 2007. Among men, cancers of the prostate, lung and bronchus, and colon and rectum account for about 54% of all newly diagnosed cancers. Prostate cancer alone accounts for about 29% (218,890) of incident cases in men. Based on cases diagnosed between 1996 and 2002, an estimated 91% of these new cases of prostate cancer are expected to be diagnosed at local or regional stages, for which 5-year relative survival approaches 100%.


Figure 1
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  		FIGURE 1 Ten Leading Cancer Types for the Estimated New Cancer Cases and Deaths, by Sex, US, 2007.

*Excludes basal and squamous cell skin cancers and in situ carcinomas except urinary bladder. Estimates are rounded to the nearest 10.

 
The three most commonly diagnosed types of cancer among women in 2007 will be cancers of the breast, lung and bronchus, and colon and rectum, accounting for about 52% of estimated cancer cases in women. Breast cancer alone is expected to account for 26% (178,480) of all new cancer cases among women.

    Expected Number of New Cancer Deaths
Table 1 also shows the expected number of deaths from cancer projected for 2007 for men, women, and both sexes combined. It is estimated that about 559,650 Americans will die from cancer, corresponding to over 1,500 deaths per day. Cancers of the lung and bronchus, prostate, and colon and rectum in men, and cancers of the lung and bronchus, breast, and colon and rectum in women continue to be the most common fatal cancers. These four cancers account for half of the total cancer deaths among men and women (Figure 1). Lung cancer surpassed breast cancer as the leading cause of cancer death in women in 1987. Lung cancer is expected to account for 26% of all female cancer deaths in 2007. Table 3 provides the estimated number of cancer deaths in 2007 by state for selected cancer sites.


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  		TABLE 3 Age-standardized Death Rates for All Cancers Combined, 1999-2003, and Estimated Deaths* From All Cancers Combined and Selected Sites by State, US, 2007

 
    Regional Variations in Cancer Rates
Table 4 depicts cancer incidence for select cancers by state. Rates vary widely across states. For example, among the cancers listed in Table 4, the largest variations in the incidence rates, in proportionate terms, occurred in lung cancer, in which rates (cases per 100,000 population) ranged from 41.8 in men and 21.5 in women in Utah to 137.9 in men and 73.5 in women in Kentucky. In contrast, the variation in female breast cancer incidence rates was small, ranging from 115 cases per 100,000 population in New Mexico to 146.7 cases in Washington. Factors that contribute to the state variations in the incidence rates include differences in the prevalence of risk factors, access to and utilization of early detection services, and completeness of reporting. For example, the state variation in lung cancer incidence rates primarily reflects differences in smoking prevalence; Utah ranks lowest in adult smoking prevalence and Kentucky highest.


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  		TABLE 4 Cancer Incidence Rates* by Site and State, US, 1999 to 2003

 
    Trends in Cancer Incidence and Mortality
Figures 2GoGo to 5 depict long-term trends in cancer incidence and death rates for all cancers combined and for selected cancer sites by sex. Table 5 shows incidence and mortality patterns for all cancer sites combined and for the four most common cancer sites based on joinpoint analysis. Trends in incidence were adjusted for delayed reporting. Delay-adjusted cancer incidence rates for all sites combined stabilized in men from 1995 to 2003 and increased in women by 0.3% per year from 1987 to 2003.


Figure 2
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  		FIGURE 2 Annual Age-adjusted Cancer Incidence and Death Rates* for All Sites, by Sex, US, 1975 to 2003.

*Rates are age-adjusted to the 2000 US standard population. Incidence rates are adjusted for delays in reporting. Source: Incidence—Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program, (www.seer.cancer.gov). Delay-Adjusted Incidence database: "SEER Incidence Delay-Adjusted Rates, 9 Registries, 1975–2003." National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Statistical Research and Applications Branch, released April 2006, based on the November 2005 SEER data submission. Mortality—US Mortality Public Use Data Tapes, 1960 to 2003, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006.

 

Figure 3
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  		FIGURE 3 Annual Age-adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates* Among Males and Females for Selected Cancers, US, 1975 to 2003.

*Rates are age-adjusted to the 2000 US standard population and adjusted for delays in reporting. Source: Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program (www.seer.cancer.gov). Delay-Adjusted Incidence database: "SEER Incidence Delay-Adjusted Rates, 9 Registries, 1975–2003." National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Statistical Research and Applications Branch, released April 2006, based on the November 2005 SEER data submission.

 

Figure 4
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  		FIGURE 4 Annual Age-adjusted Cancer Death Rates*

*Among Males for Selected Cancers, US, 1930 to 2003. *Rates are age-adjusted to the 2000 US standard population. Note: Due to changes in ICD coding, numerator information has changed over time. Rates for cancers of the lung and bronchus, colon and rectum, and liver are affected by these changes. Source: US Mortality Public Use Data Tapes, 1960 to 2003, US Mortality Volumes, 1930 to 1959, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006.

 

Figure 5
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  		FIGURE 5 Annual Age-adjusted Cancer Death Rates* Among Females for Selected Cancers, US, 1930 to 2003.

*Rates are age-adjusted to the 2000 US standard population.

{dagger}Uterus includes uterine cervix and uterine corpus.

Note: Due to changes in ICD coding, numerator information has changed over time. Rates for cancers of the uterus, ovary, lung and bronchus, and colon and rectum are affected by these changes. Source: US Mortality Public Use Data Tapes, 1960 to 2003, US Mortality Volumes 1930 to 1959, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006.

 

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  		TABLE 5 Trends in Cancer Incidence and Death Rates for Selected Cancers by Sex, US, 1975 to 2003

 
Lung cancer incidence rates are declining in men and appear to be plateauing in women after increasing for many decades. The lag in the temporal trend of lung cancer incidence rates in women compared with men reflects historical differences in cigarette smoking between men and women; cigarette smoking in women peaked about 20 years later than in men. Colorectal cancer incidence rates have decreased from 1998 through 2003 in both males and in females. Female breast cancer incidence rates leveled off from 2001 to 2003 after increasing since 1980, which may reflect the saturation of mammography utilization and reduction in the use of hormone replacement therapy.15 Prostate cancer incidence rates continued to increase, although at a slower rate than those reported for the early 1990s and before. The continuing increase for prostate cancer may be attributable to increased screening through prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing.15

Death rates for all cancer sites combined decreased by 1.6% per year from 1993 to 2003 in males and by 0.8% per year in females from 1992 to 2003. Mortality rates have continued to decrease across all four major cancer sites in men and in women, except for female lung cancer in which rates continued to increase by 0.3% per year from 1995 to 2003 (Table 5).

Table 6 shows the contribution of individual cancer sites to the total decrease in overall cancer death rates. Death rates from all cancers combined peaked in 1990 for men and in 1991 for women. Between 1990/1991 and 2003, death rates from cancer decreased by 16.3% among men and by 8.5% among women. Among men, reduction in death rates from lung, prostate, and colorectal cancers accounts for about 80% of the decrease in cancer death rates, while reduction in death rates from breast and colorectal cancers accounts for over 60% of the decrease among women. Lung cancer in men and breast cancer in women alone account for nearly 40% of the sex-specific decreases in cancer death rates. The decrease in lung cancer death rates among men is due to reduction in tobacco use over the past 40 years, while the decrease in death rates from female breast, colorectal, and prostate cancer largely reflects improvements in early detection and treatment. Between 1990/1991 and 2003, death rates increased substantially for lung cancer in women and for liver and intrahepatic bile duct cancer in men.


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  		TABLE 6 The Contribution of Indvidual Cancer Sites to the Decrease in Cancer Death Rates, 1990–2003

 
    Changes in the Recorded Number of DeathsFrom Cancer From 2003 to 2004
A total of 553,888 cancer deaths was recorded in the United States in 2004, the most recent year for which actual data are available. There were 3,014 fewer cancer deaths reported in 2004 than in 2003, resulting in a decrease in the total number of cancer deaths for the second consecutive year. Cancer accounted for about 23% of all deaths, ranking second only to heart disease (Table 7). When cause of death is ranked within each age group, categorized in 20-year age intervals, cancer is one of the five leading causes of death in each age group among both males and females (Table 8). Cancer is the leading cause of death among women aged 40 to 79 years and among men aged 60 to 79 years. When age-adjusted death rates are considered (Figure 6), cancer is the leading cause of death among men and women under age 85 years. A total of 473,535 people under age 85 years died from cancer in the United States in 2004, compared with 414,526 deaths from heart disease.


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  		TABLE 7 Fifteen Leading Causes of Death, US, 2004

 

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  		TABLE 8 Ten Leading Causes of Death by Age and Sex, US, 2004

 

Figure 6
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  		FIGURE 6 Death Rates* From Cancer and Heart Disease for Ages Younger Than 85 and 85 and Older.

*Rates are age-adjusted to the 2000 US standard population.

Source: US Mortality Public Use Data Tapes, 1960 to 2003, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006.

 
Table 9 presents the number of deaths from all cancers combined and the five most common cancer sites for males and females at various ages. Among males under age 40 years, leukemia is the most common fatal cancer, while cancer of the lung and bronchus predominates in men aged 40 years and older. The second most common cause of cancer death is colorectal cancer among men aged 40 to 79 years and prostate cancer among men aged 80 years and older. Among females, leukemia is the leading cause of cancer death before age 20 years, breast cancer ranks first at age 20 to 59 years, and lung cancer ranks first at age 60 years and older.


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  		TABLE 9 Reported Deaths for the Five Leading Cancer Sites by Age and Sex, US, 2004

 
From 2003 to 2004, the number of recorded cancer deaths decreased by 1,160 in men and by 1,854 in women (Table 10). The largest change in number of deaths from the major cancers was for colorectal cancer in both men and women (decreased by 1,110 and 1,094, respectively).


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  		TABLE 10 Trends in the Recorded Number of Deaths for Selected Cancers by Sex, US, 1989 to 2004

 

   CANCER OCCURRENCE BY RACE/ETHNICITY
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 SELECTED FINDINGS
 CANCER OCCURRENCE BY...
CANCER IN CHILDREN
 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE...
 REFERENCES
 
Cancer incidence and death rates vary considerably among racial and ethnic groups (Table 11). For all cancer sites combined, African American men have a 15% higher incidence rate and 38% higher death rate than White men. African American women have a 9% lower incidence rate, but an 18% higher death rate than White women for all cancer sites combined. For the specific cancer sites listed in Table 11, incidence and death rates are consistently higher in African Americans than in Whites, except for breast cancer (incidence) and lung and kidney cancers (incidence and mortality) among women. Death rates from prostate, stomach, and cervical cancers among African Americans are more than twice those in Whites. Factors known to contribute to racial disparities in mortality vary by cancer site. These factors include differences in exposure to underlying risk factors (eg, Helicobacter pylori for stomach cancer), access to high-quality regular screening (breast, cervical, and colorectal cancers), and timely diagnosis and treatment (for many cancers). The higher breast cancer incidence rates among Whites are thought to reflect a combination of factors that affect diagnosis (such as more frequent mammography in White women until the most recent time period) and those that affect disease risk (such as later age at first birth and greater use of hormone replacement therapy among White than African American women).16


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  		TABLE 11 Incidence and Death Rates* for Selected Cancers by Race and Ethnicity, US, 1999 to 2003

 
Among other racial and ethnic groups, cancer incidence and death rates are lower than those in Whites and African Americans for all cancer sites combined and for the four most common cancer sites. However, the incidence and death rates are generally higher in minority populations than in Whites for cancers of the uterine cervix, stomach, and liver. Stomach and liver cancer incidence and death rates are more than twice as high in Asian American/Pacific Islanders as in Whites, reflecting increased exposure to infectious agents such as Helicobacter pylori and hepatitis B.17 Kidney cancer incidence and death rates are the highest among American Indians/Alaskan Natives, although factors that contribute to this are unknown.

Trends in cancer incidence can only be adjusted for delayed reporting in Whites and African Americans, and not in other racial and ethnic subgroups, because long-term incidence data required for delay adjustment are available only for Whites and African Americans. From 1995 to 2003, sex-specific incidence rates for all cancer sites combined, not adjusted for delayed reporting, have stabilized, except for African American and Hispanic men, in whom rates decreased by 1.3% and 1.1%, respectively. In contrast, death rates from cancer significantly decreased in each racial and ethnic group, with larger decreases in men than in women.3

    Lifetime Probability of Developing Cancer
The lifetime probability of developing cancer is higher for men (45%) than for women (38%) (Table 12). However, because of the relatively early age of breast cancer onset, women have a slightly higher probability of developing cancer before age 60 years. It is noteworthy that these estimates are based on the average experience of the general population and may over- or underestimate individual risk because of differences in exposure and/or genetic susceptibility.


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  		TABLE 12 Probability of Developing Invasive Cancers Within Selected Age Intervals, by Sex, US*

 
    Cancer Survival by Race
Compared with Whites, African American men and women have poorer survival once a cancer diagnosis is made. As shown in Figure 7, African Americans are less likely than Whites to be diagnosed with cancer at a localized stage, when the disease may be more easily and successfully treated, and are more likely to be diagnosed with cancer at a regional or distant stage of disease. Five-year relative survival is lower in African Americans than Whites within each stratum of stage of diagnosis for nearly every cancer site (Figure 8). These disparities may result from inequalities in access to and receipt of quality health care and/or within-stage differences in tumor characteristics. The contribution of these factors, individually or collectively, to the differential survival for specific cancers is unclear.18 However, some studies suggest that African Americans who receive cancer treatment and medical care similar to that of Whites experience similar outcomes.19


Figure 7
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  		FIGURE 7 Distribution of Selected Cancers by Race and Stage at Diagnosis, US, 1996–2002.

*The distribution for localized stage represents localized and regional stages combined.

Note: Staging according to Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) historic stage categories rather than the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system. For each cancer type, stage categories do not total 100% because sufficient information is not available to assign a stage to all cancer cases. Comparison of this data to that of previous years is discouraged due to the use of an expanded data set.

Source: Ries LAG, Harkins D, Krapcho M, et al., eds. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975–2003, National Cancer Institute, based on November 2005 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER Web site, 2006.

 

Figure 8
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  		FIGURE 8 Five-year Relative Survival Rates Among Patients Diagnosed With Selected Cancers, by Race and Stage at Diagnosis, US, 1996–2002.

*The rate for localized stage represents localized and regional stages combined. Note: Staging according to Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) historic stage categories rather than the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system. Comparison of this data to that of previous years is discouraged due to the use of an expanded data set.

Source: Ries LAG, Harkins D, Krapcho M, et al., eds. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975–2003, National Cancer Institute, based on November 2005 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER Web site, 2006.

 
There have been notable improvements over time in relative 5-year survival rates for many cancer sites and for all cancers combined (Table 13). This is true for both Whites and African Americans. Cancers for which survival has not improved substantially over the past 25 years include uterine corpus, cervix, larynx, lung, and pancreas.


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  		TABLE 13 Trends in Five-year Relative Survival Rates* (%) for Selected Cancers by Race and Year of Diagnosis, US, 1975 to 2002.

 
Relative survival rates cannot be calculated for other racial and ethnic populations because accurate life expectancies (the average number of years of life remaining for persons who have attained a given age) are not available. However, based on cause-specific survival rates of cancer patients diagnosed from 1992 to 2000 in SEER areas of the United States, all minority populations, except Asian American/Pacific Islander women, have a greater probability of dying from cancer within 5 years of diagnosis than non-Hispanic Whites, after accounting for differences in stage at diagnosis.15,20 For the four major cancer sites (prostate, female breast, lung and bronchus, and colon and rectum), minority populations are more likely to be diagnosed at distant stage, compared with non-Hispanic Whites.20


   CANCER IN CHILDREN
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 SELECTED FINDINGS
 CANCER OCCURRENCE BY...
 CANCER IN CHILDREN
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE...
 REFERENCES
 
Cancer is the second leading cause of death among children between age 1 to 14 years in the United States; accidents are the most frequent cause of death in this age group (Table 14). The most common cancers in children (aged 0 to 14 years) are leukemia (particularly acute lymphocytic leukemia), brain and other nervous system cancers, soft tissue sarcomas, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and renal (Wilms) tumors.3 Over the past 25 years, there have been significant improvements in the 5-year relative survival rate for many childhood cancers (Table 15). The 5-year relative survival rate among children for all cancer sites combined improved from 58% for patients diagnosed in 1975 to 1977 to 79% for those diagnosed in 1996 to 2002.3


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  		TABLE 14 Fifteen Leading Causes of Death Among Children Aged 1 to 14, US, 2004

 

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  		TABLE 15 Trends in Five-year Relative Survival Rates* (%) for Children Under Age 15, US, 1975 to 2002.

 

   LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE CHALLENGES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 SELECTED FINDINGS
 CANCER OCCURRENCE BY...
 CANCER IN CHILDREN
 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE...
REFERENCES
 
Estimates of the expected numbers of new cancer cases and cancer deaths should be interpreted cautiously. These estimates may vary considerably from year to year, particularly for less common cancers and in states with smaller populations. Unanticipated changes may occur that are not captured by modeling techniques. Estimates are also affected by changes in method. The introduction of a new method for estimating new cancer cases in 2007 has substantially affected the estimates for a number of cancers, particularly leukemia and female breast (see Pickle et al for more detailed discussion).12 For these reasons, we discourage the use of these estimates to track year-to-year changes in cancer occurrence and death. Age-standardized or age-specific cancer death rates from the NCHS and cancer incidence rates from SEER or NPCR are the preferred data sources for tracking cancer trends, even though these data are 3 and 4 years old, respectively, by the time that they become available. Despite their limitations, the ACS estimates of the number of new cancer cases and deaths in the current year provide reasonably accurate estimates of the burden of new cancer cases and deaths in the United States. Such estimates will assist in continuing efforts to reduce the public health burden of cancer.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 SELECTED FINDINGS
 CANCER OCCURRENCE BY...
 CANCER IN CHILDREN
 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE...
 REFERENCES
 

  1. National Center for Health Statistics, Division of Vital Statistics, Centers for Disease Control. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss.htm. Accessed November 22, 2006.
  2. National Cancer Institute, U.S. National Institutes of Health. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program (www.seer.cancer.gov) SEER*Stat Database: Incidence—SEER 9 Regs Public-Use, Nov 2005 Sub (1973–2003), Linked to County Attributes, Total US, 1969–2003 Counties, National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Cancer Statistics Branch, released April 2006, based on the November 2005 submission.
  3. Ries LAG, Harkins D, Krapcho M, et al., eds. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975–2003, National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, MD, http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2003/, based on November 2005 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER Web site, 2006.
  4. National Cancer Institute, U.S. National Institutes of Health. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program (www.seer.cancer.gov) SEER*Stat Database: Incidence—SEER 13 Regs Public-Use, Nov 2005 Sub (1992–2003), Linked to County Attributes, Total US, 1969–2003 Counties, National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Cancer Statistics Branch, released April 2006, based on the November 2005 submission.
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A Primary Xenograft Model of Small-Cell Lung Cancer Reveals Irreversible Changes in Gene Expression Imposed by Culture In vitro
Cancer Res., April 15, 2009; 69(8): 3364 - 3373.
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T. Hibi, T. Mori, M. Fukuma, K. Yamazaki, A. Hashiguchi, T. Yamada, M. Tanabe, K. Aiura, T. Kawakami, A. Ogiwara, et al.
Synuclein-{gamma} Is Closely Involved in Perineural Invasion and Distant Metastasis in Mouse Models and Is a Novel Prognostic Factor in Pancreatic Cancer
Clin. Cancer Res., April 15, 2009; 15(8): 2864 - 2871.
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 JCOHome page
T. Terasawa, J. Lau, S. Bardet, O. Couturier, T. Hotta, M. Hutchings, T. Nihashi, and H. Nagai
Fluorine-18-Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography for Interim Response Assessment of Advanced-Stage Hodgkin's Lymphoma and Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma: A Systematic Review
J. Clin. Oncol., April 10, 2009; 27(11): 1906 - 1914.
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C. A. Iacobuzio-Donahue, B. Fu, S. Yachida, M. Luo, H. Abe, C. M. Henderson, F. Vilardell, Z. Wang, J. W. Keller, P. Banerjee, et al.
DPC4 Gene Status of the Primary Carcinoma Correlates With Patterns of Failure in Patients With Pancreatic Cancer
J. Clin. Oncol., April 10, 2009; 27(11): 1806 - 1813.
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 BloodHome page
H. Ludwig, R. Hajek, E. Tothova, J. Drach, Z. Adam, B. Labar, M. Egyed, I. Spicka, H. Gisslinger, R. Greil, et al.
Thalidomide-dexamethasone compared with melphalan-prednisolone in elderly patients with multiple myeloma
Blood, April 9, 2009; 113(15): 3435 - 3442.
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 Ann. Thorac. Surg.Home page
F. Farjah, D. R. Flum, T. K. Varghese Jr, R. G. Symons, and D. E. Wood
Surgeon Specialty and Long-Term Survival After Pulmonary Resection for Lung Cancer
Ann. Thorac. Surg., April 1, 2009; 87(4): 995 - 1006.
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 Journal of the American Dental AssociationHome page
E. Applebaum, T. N. Ruhlen, F. R. Kronenberg, C. Hayes, and E. S. Peters
Oral Cancer Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices: A Survey of Dentists and Primary Care Physicians in Massachusetts
J Am Dent Assoc, April 1, 2009; 140(4): 461 - 467.
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 J Health PsycholHome page
C. Radecki Breitkopf and H. C. Pearson
A Theory-based Approach to Understanding Follow-up of Abnormal Pap Tests
J Health Psychol, April 1, 2009; 14(3): 361 - 371.
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 Jpn J Clin OncolHome page
Q. Sun, C. Liu, H. Zhong, B. Zhong, H. Xu, W. Shen, and D. Wang
Multi-center Phase II Trial of Weekly Paclitaxel Plus Cisplatin Combination Chemotherapy in Patients with Advanced Gastric and Gastro-esophageal Cancer
Jpn. J. Clin. Oncol., April 1, 2009; 39(4): 237 - 243.
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 Mol. Cell. ProteomicsHome page
U. Kuzmanov, N. Jiang, C. R. Smith, A. Soosaipillai, and E. P. Diamandis
Differential N-glycosylation of Kallikrein 6 Derived from Ovarian Cancer Cells or the Central Nervous System
Mol. Cell. Proteomics, April 1, 2009; 8(4): 791 - 798.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 JCOHome page
X. Dong, L. Jiao, Y. Li, D. B. Evans, H. Wang, K. R. Hess, J. L. Abbruzzese, and D. Li
Significant Associations of Mismatch Repair Gene Polymorphisms With Clinical Outcome of Pancreatic Cancer
J. Clin. Oncol., April 1, 2009; 27(10): 1592 - 1599.
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 Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev.Home page
L. C. Vinikoor, M. D. Long, T. O. Keku, C. F. Martin, J. A. Galanko, and R. S. Sandler
The Association between Diabetes, Insulin Use, and Colorectal Cancer among Whites and African Americans
Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., April 1, 2009; 18(4): 1239 - 1242.
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 Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck SurgHome page
D. Sano, S. Choi, Z. L. Milas, G. Zhou, C. E. Galer, Y.-W. Su, M. Gule, M. Zhao, Z. Zhu, and J. N. Myers
The Effect of Combination Anti-Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor and Anti-Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor 2 Targeted Therapy on Lymph Node Metastasis: A Study in an Orthotopic Nude Mouse Model of Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Oral Tongue
Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg, April 1, 2009; 135(4): 411 - 420.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 JNMHome page
J. H. Lee, E. L. Rosen, and D. A. Mankoff
The Role of Radiotracer Imaging in the Diagnosis and Management of Patients with Breast Cancer: Part 1--Overview, Detection, and Staging
J. Nucl. Med., April 1, 2009; 50(4): 569 - 581.
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 Cancer Res.Home page
T. J. Wilson, K. C. Nannuru, and R. K. Singh
Cathepsin G Recruits Osteoclast Precursors via Proteolytic Activation of Protease-Activated Receptor-1
Cancer Res., April 1, 2009; 69(7): 3188 - 3195.
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 Anticancer ResHome page
R. METZGER, D. VALLBOHMER, C. MULLER-TIDOW, H. HIGASHI, E. BOLLSCHWEILER, U. WARNECKE-EBERZ, J. BRABENDER, S. E. BALDUS, H. XI, W. E. BERDEL, et al.
Increased Human Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase (hTERT) mRNA Expression but not Telomerase Activity is Related to Survival in Curatively Resected Non-small Cell Lung Cancer
Anticancer Res, April 1, 2009; 29(4): 1157 - 1162.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
D. S. Hsu, C. R. Acharya, B. S. Balakumaran, R. F. Riedel, M. K. Kim, M. Stevenson, S. Tuchman, S. Mukherjee, W. Barry, H. K. Dressman, et al.
Characterizing the developmental pathways TTF-1, NKX2-8, and PAX9 in lung cancer
PNAS, March 31, 2009; 106(13): 5312 - 5317.
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R. Mutter, B. Lu, D. P. Carbone, I. Csiki, L. Moretti, D. H. Johnson, J. D. Morrow, A. B. Sandler, Y. Shyr, F. Ye, et al.
A Phase II Study of Celecoxib in Combination with Paclitaxel, Carboplatin, and Radiotherapy for Patients with Inoperable Stage IIIA/B Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer
Clin. Cancer Res., March 15, 2009; 15(6): 2158 - 2165.
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J. S. Ko, A. H. Zea, B. I. Rini, J. L. Ireland, P. Elson, P. Cohen, A. Golshayan, P. A. Rayman, L. Wood, J. Garcia, et al.
Sunitinib Mediates Reversal of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cell Accumulation in Renal Cell Carcinoma Patients
Clin. Cancer Res., March 15, 2009; 15(6): 2148 - 2157.
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 Clin. Cancer Res.Home page
E. W. Duiker, E. G.E. de Vries, D. Mahalingam, G. J. Meersma, W. Boersma-van Ek, H. Hollema, M. N. Lub-de Hooge, G. M. van Dam, R. H. Cool, W. J. Quax, et al.
Enhanced Antitumor Efficacy of a DR5-Specific TRAIL Variant over Recombinant Human TRAIL in a Bioluminescent Ovarian Cancer Xenograft Model
Clin. Cancer Res., March 15, 2009; 15(6): 2048 - 2057.
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 Clin. Cancer Res.Home page
A. Larghi, E. C. Verna, P. G. Lecca, and G. Costamagna
Screening for Pancreatic Cancer in High-Risk Individuals: A Call for Endoscopic Ultrasound
Clin. Cancer Res., March 15, 2009; 15(6): 1907 - 1914.
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S. Y. Lai, P. Koppikar, S. M. Thomas, E. E. Childs, A. M. Egloff, R. R. Seethala, B. F. Branstetter, W. E. Gooding, A. Muthukrishnan, J. M. Mountz, et al.
Intratumoral Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Antisense DNA Therapy in Head and Neck Cancer: First Human Application and Potential Antitumor Mechanisms
J. Clin. Oncol., March 10, 2009; 27(8): 1235 - 1242.
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J. W. Friedberg, M. D. Taylor, J. R. Cerhan, C. R. Flowers, H. Dillon, C. M. Farber, E. S. Rogers, J. D. Hainsworth, E. K. Wong, J. M. Vose, et al.
Follicular Lymphoma in the United States: First Report of the National LymphoCare Study
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 J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg.Home page
L. J. Inge, K. D. Coon, M. A. Smith, and R. M. Bremner
Expression of LKB1 tumor suppressor in non-small cell lung cancer determines sensitivity to 2-deoxyglucose.
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 J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg.Home page
R. J. Cerfolio, A. S. Bryant, A. A. Talati, R. M. Cerfolio, and T. S. Winokur
Change in maximum standardized uptake value on repeat positron emission tomography after chemoradiotherapy in patients with esophageal cancer identifies complete responders.
J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., March 1, 2009; 137(3): 605 - 609.
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 Endocr Relat CancerHome page
S. A Boorjian, H. V Heemers, I. Frank, S. A Farmer, L. J Schmidt, T. J Sebo, and D. J Tindall
Expression and significance of androgen receptor coactivators in urothelial carcinoma of the bladder
Endocr. Relat. Cancer, March 1, 2009; 16(1): 123 - 137.
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 J Oncol Pharm PractHome page
A. Gaikwad, J. K Wolf, J. Brown, L. M Ramondetta, and J. A Smith
In vitro evaluation of the effects of gefitinib on the cytotoxic activity of selected anticancer agents in a panel of human endometrial cancer cell lines
Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice, March 1, 2009; 15(1): 35 - 44.
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 RadiologyHome page
G. Lin, K.-K. Ng, C.-J. Chang, J.-J. Wang, K.-C. Ho, T.-C. Yen, T.-I Wu, C.-C. Wang, Y.-R. Chen, Y.-T. Huang, et al.
Myometrial Invasion in Endometrial Cancer: Diagnostic Accuracy of Diffusion-weighted 3.0-T MR Imaging--Initial Experience
Radiology, March 1, 2009; 250(3): 784 - 792.
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 Cancer Res.Home page
B. Sen, B. Saigal, N. Parikh, G. Gallick, and F. M. Johnson
Sustained Src Inhibition Results in Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (STAT3) Activation and Cancer Cell Survival via Altered Janus-Activated Kinase-STAT3 Binding
Cancer Res., March 1, 2009; 69(5): 1958 - 1965.
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 Cancer Res.Home page
C. J. Riley, K. P. Engelhardt, J. W. Saldanha, W. Qi, L. S. Cooke, Y. Zhu, S. T. Narayan, K. Shakalya, K. D. Croce, I. G. Georgiev, et al.
Design and Activity of a Murine and Humanized Anti-CEACAM6 Single-Chain Variable Fragment in the Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer
Cancer Res., March 1, 2009; 69(5): 1933 - 1940.
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 PediatricsHome page
AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS Section on Hematolo
Long-term Follow-up Care for Pediatric Cancer Survivors
Pediatrics, March 1, 2009; 123(3): 906 - 915.
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 Clin. Chem.Home page
E. Sunami, M. Shinozaki, C. S. Higano, R. Wollman, T. B. Dorff, S. J. Tucker, S. R. Martinez, F. R. Singer, and D. S.B. Hoon
Multimarker Circulating DNA Assay for Assessing Blood of Prostate Cancer Patients
Clin. Chem., March 1, 2009; 55(3): 559 - 567.
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 Clin. Cancer Res.Home page
A. Tanemura, A. M. Terando, M.-S. Sim, A. Q. van Hoesel, M. F.G. de Maat, D. L. Morton, and D. S.B. Hoon
CpG Island Methylator Phenotype Predicts Progression of Malignant Melanoma
Clin. Cancer Res., March 1, 2009; 15(5): 1801 - 1807.
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 Arch Intern MedHome page
T. D. Sequist, A. M. Zaslavsky, R. Marshall, R. H. Fletcher, and J. Z. Ayanian
Patient and Physician Reminders to Promote Colorectal Cancer Screening: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Arch Intern Med, February 23, 2009; 169(4): 364 - 371.
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 JAMAHome page
S. A. Waldman, T. Hyslop, S. Schulz, A. Barkun, K. Nielsen, J. Haaf, C. Bonaccorso, Y. Li, and D. S. Weinberg
Association of GUCY2C Expression in Lymph Nodes With Time to Recurrence and Disease-Free Survival in pN0 Colorectal Cancer
JAMA, February 18, 2009; 301(7): 745 - 752.
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 JNCI J Natl Cancer InstHome page
C. Delloye-Bourgeois, E. Brambilla, M.-M. Coissieux, C. Guenebeaud, R. Pedeux, V. Firlej, F. Cabon, C. Brambilla, P. Mehlen, and A. Bernet
Interference With Netrin-1 and Tumor Cell Death in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer
J Natl Cancer Inst, February 18, 2009; 101(4): 237 - 247.
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